Medication errors and prevention in nursing Research Paper

Medication errors and prevention in nursing - Research Paper Example ional practice, health care products, procedures, and systems, including prescribing; order communication; product labeling, packaging, and nomenclature; compounding; dispensing; distribution; administration; education; monitoring; and use. The greatest cause of the errors in medication is significantly associated to limited technology in most healthcare facilities among other personal factors like social stress, fatigue and incompetence. Research findings have established that modern technology can be applied with relatively high effectiveness in terms of precision and accuracy of medical related services delivery (Aspden & Institute of Medicine, 2006). The best known way for hospitals to protect patients from errors is by adopting technology called computerized physician order entry (CPOE). The physician or any other authorized prescriber enters orders for a patient on a computer that contains patient information such as key lab values, clinical condition, allergies, etc. The computer checks the safety and appropriateness of the order and sends it electronically to the pharmacy (Aspden & Institute of Medicine, 2006). In the Colchicine example, a good CPOE system would alert the physician to the misplaced decimal in the order, and the best systems would prevent the order from being written in the first place. In my mind, one of the greatest advances of CPOE is that it eliminates the need for pharmacists to decipher physician handwriting. I’ve often wondered how they do that. Increased awareness creation through periodic seminars would also address personal issues that contribute to such mistakes by

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS LAW Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS LAW - Research Paper Example Alongside this matter is the important consideration of the costs entailed in doing business in the Russian Federation. Possible Legal Risks Involved There are several legal issues, some of which take the form of risks, involved when entering a foreign market. Legal issues involved laws that affect the conduct of a particular business in a particular place. Laws that will be involved in conducting a business in Russia will be, necessarily, Russian commercial laws, international trade laws and international sales transactions and regulations. The risk, however, in conducting a business in a foreign state can be categorised into the following: effectiveness of the judiciary; rule of law; risk of contract repudiation; corruption, and; risk of expropriation.1 It is best to conduct business in a country that has a stable political condition and is known as business friendly. Although there is always risk, political risks of countries vary in degrees. Political risk is defined as â€Å"ri sk of loss when investing in a given country caused by changes in a country’s political structure or policies such as tax laws, tariffs, expropriation of assets or restriction in repatriation of assets.†2 Relevant to this discussion is the case of RosInvestCo UK Ltd v Russian Federation3 where a UK company has brought arbitration proceedings against the Russian Federation for invalid expropriation, which is contrary to the UK-Russian BIT. This case is thoroughly discussed on the UK-Russian BIT paragraph. In weighing the political stability of a country, its history might provide a good indicator of such a risk as countries with a history of stability and consistency are more likely to be less risky than those with opposing history.4 Unfortunately, Russia does not have a history of stability and consistency considering the number of political disarray it had in the past. The Best Form of Corporate Entity to Take There are, at least, four ways by which the Ultra-Educators Software Limited may engage in the business of selling chocolates in Russia. One is by selling directly by establishing its own branch or subsidiary; two, through retailers; three, through an intermediary or distributor, and; four, through a representative or agent company.5 Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages. In making decisions about this matter, the following must be considered: the financial strength of Ultra-Educators; its connections; extent of its business commitments, and; the present state of its personnel, equipment, and status.6 If the Company intends to sell directly, it must set up an entity in Russia that will directly take charge of the business of selling the chocolates that the Company will be exporting to that country. It can either set up a branch or a subsidiary. A branch is a part or division of a company whilst a subsidiary is a separate entity independent from the company. Thus, the liability of a branch is that also of the main co mpany, but not that of the subsidiary because it is deemed separate from the company.7 Moreover, if the branch has taxes owing to it by virtue of the business it is conducting in the foreign state, the main company is liable for such taxes. This is not so in the case of the subsidiary.8

Business Model of Nike Essay Example for Free

Business Model of Nike Essay Introduction Nike Inc. was founded in 1962 by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight as a partnership under the name, Blue Ribbon Sports. Nike’s main products are sports shoes, sportswear, sports goods. In this paper, we will talk about ‘The Challenge of Entrepreneurship’ ‘Competitive Business Model’ ‘Solid Strategic Plan’ ‘Feasibility Analysis’ and ‘Business Plan’. All of these topics are very important when we study the ‘EOE and SBM’, and in each topic have more than one point. We got ‘The Benefits of Entrepreneurship’ ‘Competition’ of ‘The Challenge of Entrepreneurship ’; ‘Core Competencies’ ‘Innovations’ ‘Sustainable Competitive Advantage’ ‘Key Success Factor’ of ‘CBM’; ‘Vision and Mission’ ‘Objectives and Goals’ ‘SWOT’ ‘Competitor’ ‘Business strategy’ of ‘Solid Strategic Plan’; ‘Industry and Market Feasibility’ ‘Product or Service Feasibility’ ‘Financial Feasibility’ and ‘5Forces Model’ of ‘Feasibility Analysis’. Now, we are going to show you the detail. The Challenge of Entrepreneurship The Benefits of Entrepreneurship Surveys show that owners of small businesses believe they work harder, earn more money, and are more satisfied than if they worked for someone else. (Via Dr. Josà © A. Torres Essentials of Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management Powerpoint) Opportunity to Create Your Own Destiny. Nike, originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS), was founded by University of Oregon track athlete Philip Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger(now ASICS), making most sales at track meets out of Knights automobile. According to Otis Davis, a student athlete whom Bower man coached at the University of Oregon, who later went on to win two gold medals at the 1960 Summer Olympics, Bower man made the first pair of Nike shoes for him, contradicting a claim that they were made for Phil Knight. Says Davis, I told Tom Brokaw that I was the first. I dont care what all the billionaires say. Bill Bower man ma de the first pair of shoes for me. People dont believe me. In fact, I didnt like the way they felt on my feet. There was no support and they were too tight. But I saw Bower man make  them from the waffle iron, and they were mine. (Via HTTP://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike,_Inc.) Opportunity to Make a Difference. In 1979, Nike Air cushion technology Air, by the inventor of the m. Frank Rudy patented, first applied on the Tailwind running shoes, the gas film in running shoes soles for the protection of the cushion. And Nike has created many print and television advertisements with Wieden+ Kennedy, Wieden+ Kennedy remains Nikes primary ad agency. It was agency co-founder Dan Wieden who coined the now-famous slogan Just Do It for a 1988 Nike ad campaign, which was chosen by Advertising Age as one of the top five ad slogans of the 20th century and enshrined in the Smithsonian Institution. Walt Stack was featured in Nikes first Just Do It advertisement, which debuted on July 1, 1988. Wieden credits the inspiration for the slogan to Lets do it, the last words spoken by Gary Gilmore before he was executed. Throughout the 1980s, Nike expanded its product line to encompass many sports and regions throughout the world.[16] In 1990, Nike moved into its eight-building Wo rld Headquarters campus in Beaverton, Oregon. (Via HTTP://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike,_Inc.) Opportunity to Real Improve profits. In 2005, Nike Air Jordan 20 generations. Nike Free series, also in protecting the foot, like barefoot training is provided for the wearer. Nike as of May 31, total annual profits had 13.7 billion dollars, a 12% growth in the past fiscal year. On December 19, 2013, Nike Incs quarterly profit rose as a result of global orders for merchandise for delivery by April increased 13 percent. Future orders of shoes or clothes for delivery between December and April, rose to $10.4 billion. Nike shares (NKE) rose 0.6 percent to $78.75 in extended trading. (Via HTTP://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike,_Inc.) Opportunity to Contribute to Society and Be Recognized for Your Efforts. NIKE Charity Organization, is a Non-Governmental Organization Headquartered in PORT HARCOURT RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA. It is autonomous and submissive to the laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. They are determined to achieve our dreams and purpose of giving hope to the less privilege and to discharge our duties as members of non-profit organization in accordance to our core  values at National, State and Local Government levels. We are prepared to harness, strengthen and efficiently direct our efforts as much as we are out to join hands with other organizations, and individuals in the fight against the Girl Child Abuse. (Via HTTP://saccharinity.com/about_us.php) Competition NIKE is a consumer products company and the relative popularity of various sports and fitness activities and changing design trends affect the demand for our products. The athletic footwear, apparel, and equipment industry is highly competitive in the United States and on a worldwide basis. We compete internationally with a significant number of athletic and leisure footwear companies, athletic and leisure apparel companies, sports equipment companies, and large companies having diversified lines of athletic and leisure footwear, apparel, and equipment. We also compete with other companies for the production capacity of independent manufacturers that produce our products and for import quota capacity. Our competitors’ product offerings, technologies, marketing expenditures (including expenditures for advertising and endorsements), pricing, costs of production, and customer service are areas of intense competition. This, in addition to rapid changes in technology and consumer preferences in the markets for athletic and leisure footwear and apparel, and athletic equipment, constitute significant risk factors in our operations. If we do not adequately and timely anticipate and respond to our competitors, our costs may increase or the consumer demand for our products may decline significantly. (Via Nike-2013-form-10K) Designing a Competitive Business Model Core Competencies Nike’s quality , technology and brand is famous . Nike’s Air cushion technology is almost using in every basketball shoes ,it’s good for athlete’s foot . the Nike having its own core competence due to organizations own skills and core competence it has taken a competitive advantage and now is taking a large market share. The core competence of Nike is to specialize in athletes foot wear and other sports items. As we know every organization has its R D department .The R D department of Nike is playing a vital role because of its innovations in foot wear how the  consumers can feel comfort by wearing their shoes and the quality thats the most important factor to be given in shoes and they have different categories of shoes which is running shoes nick shocks, Jordan, and other types that is targeting different type of consumers having different perceptions. But most important thing of Nike is they dont make shoes they design and then give their design to the production companies in Korea and china or Vietnam. Due to which they are more specialized in their innovation and in this way they have made their core competence in making innovative design of athlete shoes. Innovations Nike believe his research and development efforts are a key factor in nis success .NIKE strives to produce products that help to reduce injury , enhance athletic performance and maximize comfort success . (Via Nike 2013 Annual Report) Nike also find many expert in chemistry, exercise physiology, engineering, industrial design, sustainability and related fields ask they advices to fixed Nike’s shoes and clothing . Nike’s air cushion shock absorption technology is famous in the basketball shoes area .Nike’s Brand shoes like LBJ , Kobe and KD has many color and types . Sustainable Competitive Advantage External Analysis : Nike’s brand awareness is famous all over the world ,everyone buying shoes first chose is Nike . Nike sponsored the top athletes and gained valuable coverage. , like Jordan , LeBron James , .From the Nike’s 2013 annual report will find that Nike growing up every years . Nike has many competitors , like Adidas , Puma , Reebok and so on , but Nike’s market share is more than any other . Internal Analysis :As we know ,Nike’s product is quality , Nike’s has own RD center to creative new technology ,like air cushion shock absorber technology ,environmental technology and so on .It’s basic technology to Nike’s product .Nike always find many creative thing to put in Nike’s product ,like knitting technology in his shoes .That’s awesome . Nike has employed creative marketing and advertisement platforms in building brand awareness and equity of its diversified products. For instance, the company uses Tiger Woods a skilled golfer to build its line of golf products. It further employs professionals in various departments that include distribution, marketing, finance,  product management, research and design, information technology, and product development so as to sensitize the market of its diversified products Nike also operates an internship program every summer lasting for three months giving students an insight on the diverse brands. Other avenues Nike accomplishes diversification strategy is through mergers, joint ventures, takeovers, and acquisitions. The company also has an RD unit called the innovation kitchen located in the main parent company in Oregon, to enable it to continue producing unique products such as the cushioning system in shoes. Key Success Factor Jordan Brand : Jordan brand is a big part of the Nike. Jordan’s shoes is popular in all over the world .Jordan shoes occupy the USA 10.8% market share in 2009 .Jordan shoes sales almost two times of Adidas . (Via :http://sports.sina.com.cn/k/2009-09-12/16084584096.shtml)So Jordan brand is a key success factors of Nike .) Jordan brand is popular in young people , every young people want a Jordan’s shoes it’s beautiful and comfortable .Especially Jordan’s air cushion technology , using in every basketball shoes . Technology :In addition to Nike’s own staff of specialists in the areas of biomechanics ,chemistry , exercise physiology, engineering , industrial design, sustainability ,and related fields , we also utilize research committees and advisory boards made up of athletes , coaches, trainers , equipment managers , orthopedists , Podiatrists , and other experts who consult with us and review designs , Materials , concepts for product and manufactur ing process improvements and compliance with product safety regulations around the world . (Nike Annual Report ) Advertisement : Advertisements play a significant role in the athletic apparel industry, as consumers rely on catalogues and online advertisements . Nike has many endorsers ,like Jordan ,James ,Durant and so on. These guys bring many customers .Nike has online store ,you can buy many things in this store ,before new product star sales ,you’ll get an e-mail about this product .Nike’s advertisement not only online but also in everywhere .It’s very amazing! Adidas :Adidas is a very famous company ,it’s very popular in world too .But in these years, Adidas’s market in decrease very fast .Because Adidas’s endorsers did not famous than Nike’s endorses .Adidas’s endorses including Yao Ming ,A.I ,D.Rose and so on .But they hurt or retied .Adidas’s  quality and technology is also well known .But Adidas lost because the endorses . New Balance :New Balance (I will call New Balance as NB for short ) is known as a most comfortable shoes .They has many new technology ,such as BIOSHIELD ,ABZORB EX ,REVAX ,ENCAP ,and so on .And NB is popular in young people ,you will find many youn g people wear NB in the street .IT’s a huge market to NB. Building a Solid Strategic Plan It’s a significant part of a successful business. It keeps the company to where they oriented, to meet their mission, goals and objectives, and lead it on the right way. A Strategy plan is to build a competitive advantage. It involved Vision and Mission Statement, also Objectives and Goals, SWOT Analysis, Competition Analysis and Formulate Strategies. We are going to find out what does Nike different from others, why it is unique, and what it has that others don’t. I am about to use Five Forces Model to analyze the competitive advantages for Nike. Vision, Mission, Goal and Objective Nike’s vision is â€Å"To bring inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world.† The legendary University of Oregon track and field coach, and Nike co-founder, Bill Bowerman said, â€Å"If you have a body, you are an athlete.†. It’s their mission. (Via http://help-en-us.nike.com/app/answers/detail/a_id/113/p/3897) Their goal is to become and keep the number one sportswear brand all over the world. Their objective is keep down the manufacturing cost and keep their price down then they can occupied the market in some less developed countries who can become the economically dependent in the industry. (Via http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_objectives_of_Nike_company) SWOT Analysis. Strengths As one of the ‘Fortune 500’ company, Nike has numerous strengths. It is positioned at being the number one sportswear brand globally, it Offers their products worldwide, it has a very strong marketing campaign that increases brand familiarity, and it has no factories, it uses OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) to get the work done. It has contracts with above 700 shops globally in about 45 different countries. it also has offices in these different countries. It has chains of retail stores like  Niketown so that it can sell there. Its famous Swoosh is instantly recognizable, and Phil Knight even has it tattooed on his ankle. Weaknesses The organization does have a diversified range of sports products. However, the income of the business is still heavily dependent upon its share of the footwear market. This may leave it vulnerable if for any reason its market share erodes. The retail sector is very price sensitive. Nike does have its own retailer in Nike To wn. However, most of its income is derived from selling into retailers. Retailers tend to offer a very similar experience to the consumer. Can you tell one sports retailer from another? So margins tend to get squeezed as retailers try to pass some of the low price competition pressure onto Nike. Opportunities Product development offers Nike many opportunities. The brand is fiercely defended by its owners whom truly believe that Nike is not a fashion brand. However, like it or not, consumers that wear Nike product do not always buy it to participate in sport. Some would argue that in youth culture especially, Nike is a fashion brand. This creates its own opportunities, since product could become unfashionable before it wears out i.e. consumers need to replace shoes. There is also the opportunity to develop products such as sport wear, sunglasses and jewelry. Such high value items do tend to have associated with them, high profits. The business could also be developed internationally, building upon its strong global brand recognition. There are many markets that have the disposable income to spend on high value sports goods. For example, emerging markets such as China and India have a new richer generation of consumers. There are also global marketing events that can be utilized to support the brand such as the World Cup (soccer) and The Olympics. Threats Nike is exposed to the international nature of trade. It buys and sells in different currencies and so costs and margins are not stable over long periods of time. Such an exposure could mean that Nike may be manufacturing and/or selling at a loss. This is an issue that faces all global brands. The market for sports shoes and garments is very competitive. The model developed by Phil Knight in his Stamford Business School days (high value branded product manufactured at a low cost) is now commonly used and to an extent is no longer a basis for sustainable competitive advantage. Competitors are developing alternative brands to take away Nikes market share. As discussed above in weaknesses, the retail sector is becoming price competitive. This  ultimately means that consumers are shopping around for a better deal. So if one store charges a price for a pair of sports shoes, the consumer could go to the store along the street to compare prices for the exactly the same item, and buy the cheaper of the two. Such consumer price sensitivity is a potential external threat to Nike. (Via Nike 2013 Annual Report, http://www.quality-assurance-solutions.com/swot-analysis-nike.html, http://www.ukessays.com/essays/marketing/account-management-provides-special-treatment-in-marketing-administration-marketing-essay.php http://www.marketingteacher.com/swot/nike-swot.html) Analyze the Competition. Nike has some competitive Direct competitors- Adidas, New Balance and Li Ning. They offer the product that Nike does, and all of these companies have different key success factors. Adidas, is the most competitor od Nike with do doubt, they compete with Nike for No.1 sportswear branding for over 40 years But in these years, Adidas’s market in decrease very fast .Because Adidas’s endorsers did not famous than Nike’s endorses .Adidas’s endorses including Yao Ming ,A.I ,Derrick Rose and so on .But they hurt or retied .Adidas’s quality and technology is also well known .But Adidas lost because the endorses; New Balance is known as a most comfortable shoes .They has many new technology ,such as BIOSHIELD ,ABZORB EX ,REVAX ,ENCAP ,and so on .And New Balance is popular in young people ,you will find many young people wear New Balance in the street . IT’s a huge market to New Balance; Some Significant competitors like Under Armour and Skechers, they offer similar products like apparel or footwear, they compete with Nike in some fields. Some Indirect competitors like The North Face or Columbia, both of them are the most of the famous outdoor brand, they offer windbreaker or accessories that Nike does. They have impacts to Nike in some mutual markets. Conclusion: Nike does perfectly in quality and endorsement, they almost signed all significant players and teams all over the world. Adidas has no most strength but all factors are averaged. New Balance does best in technology, it can makes sneakers more comfortable. (New Balance has never signed any endorsers since it founded, so its score is little bit lower) Cost leadership. Nike uses Business Simulation Strategy. It has no factories, it uses OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) to get the work done, and it doesn’t has stores mostly. It offers products to Franchised retailers, and let them sell the products. It saved money from factories and rent, so its overhead is low. No shop, no labors,. quantity of materials, low too. If a supplier increases costs, Nike can easily change a new one with lower cost, Nike can do this because of its ability. Nike definitely has low cost access to factors of production. The enormity of Nike in respect to their suppliers gives them a huge advantage in production negotiations. Due to their high volumes for products, the cut-throat low cost nature of selecting a manufacturer, and coupled with the fact that Nikes suppliers depend so heavily on them for their own success that they have little to no bargaining room toward raising prices, allows Nike to continuously enjoy low costs of production. Nikes hardware and software technology implementations of using the not only using the best materials but creating them in a vertical fashion and housing an innovation culture from the top down, allow Nike a first move advantage into cost savings. However most of these advances only bring definite savings for a short time due to competitive parity within the industry, their creative nature definitely does benefit over the long run. Nike reduced costs by cutting some of its endorsements. Company research suggested the endorsement by the Italian soccer team, was not achieving the desired result. Michael Jordan, LeBron James, Kobe Bryant and a few other endorsers were retained while some other like Italian soccer team, were eliminated, to saving over $100 million. Nike does incredible in cost control. (Nike 2013 Annual Report) Differentiation. Differentiation strategy by Nike is used to gain market share advantage in the broad foot ware market. Aside from foot wear, the company boasts of products such as clothing, equipment, and even accessories. The strategy is achieved by producing consumer goods and services that customers perceive to be of high quality or have added unique features. This has been achieved by the company innovating state of the art athletic shoes that are publicized through dramatic â€Å"guerrilla† marketing. Marketing of the different products is designed to coerce customers that Nike’s shoes are not only superior but also a high fashion statement which is a necessary part of a lifestyle based  on athletic or sporting interests. The company has also differentiated itself by using highflyers that are best used in distinguishing sporting disciplines hence enabling the company reach its target market, for instance, the Brazilian national soccer team or even Michael Jordan. Also, Nike is different from others in their Ads. They show not only their technology but also leading endorsers like Michael Jordan, LeBron James, Kobe Bryant and Cristiano Ronaldo in their Ads of new products. At the same time, their Ads are also very creative and with imagination, make people who watched them unforgettable. (Via Nike 2013 Annual Report) Focus.

Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions

Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions 2.1 INTRODUCTION The effectiveness of any organization in general, is a direct function of the quality of the individuals who make up that organization. The knowledge, skills, abilities, and commitment of the members of the organization together constitute the most critical factor in the development and implementation of work plans and the delivery of products and services. Without the full commitment of its employees, an organization cannot accomplish its objectives. Consequently, the attraction, organization, development and motivation of employees which is the personnel function of management are a central responsibility at all levels of management that is from the chief executive to the first line supervisor. 2.2 WHAT IS PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT? There are many definitions of personnel management, but all basically say that it is: attracting and developing competent employees and creating the organizational conditions which result in their full utilization and encourages them to put forth their best efforts.1 In any organization, there has to be someone concerned with the welfare and performance of persons who are a part of the operation. When an individual or a team of individuals takes on this task of seeing to programs and setting policies that impact everyone associated with the company, they are engaged in the process of personnel management, sometimes referred to as human resources management, According to Franklin A., personnel management is based on careful handling of relationships among individuals at work and is the art of forecasting, acquiring, developing and maintaining competent workforce so that the organization derives maximum benefit in terms of performance and efficiency.2 Personnel Management is that part of management which is concerned with, people at work and their relationship within the organization. It can also be defined as that aspect of an organization, which is concerned with obtaining the best possible staff for the origination, looking after them so well that they will like to remain in the organization and give off their best in their jobs. It has to do with how best to use the skills and intelligence of people towards the achievement of organizational objectives.3 From the definitions quoted by various management experts in the past or present, the inference that we derive is that personnel management aims at attaining maximum efficiency and to yield maximum benefits to the organization. Two major points about personnel management are implied in this definition. First, effective personnel management must be future oriented. Support for organizational objectives now and for the foreseeable future must be provided through a steady supply of competent and capable employees. Second, effective personnel management is action oriented. The emphasis must be placed on solution of employment issues and problems to support organizational objectives and facilitate employee development and satisfaction To sum up, Personnel management aims at achieving these major steps: Analyzing the plan for future action and expansion. Estimating the quantitative and qualitative aspects of labour. Assessing the requirement of existing manpower or human resource. Formulating the plan for effective utilization of manpower, reducing under utilization or mis-utilization of manpower which is one of the most important resources. Finalizes the planning for recruitment, selection, promotion, transfer, training and development. Organizational effectivenes Basically Personnel management has certain goals and objectives to fulfill which includes; Creating a congenial and healthy environment for employees or workers to function effectively. To bring about organizational and human resource development through training, development programmes or even managerial succession planning. Selection and placement of right number of people and ensuring proper allocation of duties and responsibilities upon them. Creating better inter-personal relations, developing a sense of responsibility and responsiveness amongst workers and employees. Boosting the morale and sense of initiative amongst employees. Adopting best techniques or conceivable methods to bring best possible development of workers on work. 2.2.1 Functions of the Personnel Department A well-organized personnel department of an organization performs the following functions. Typically personnel work is concerned with: i. Manpower Planning: This is the first function of the personnel department. It has to do with the process by which a firm ensures that the required staff in terms of qualification and number is available at the right time. It involves determining personnel needs in relations to the objectives of the organization. It therefore deals with the qualification or education, skills and the appropriate number of personnel a firm should engage. It is therefore the process of assessing, predicting, or forecasting an organizations manpower needs in a relation to its plans. ii. Employment/Recruitment: After the manpower needs of the organization have been determined, the next stage is the make an attempt to employ the right caliber of personnel into the organization. This involves identifying sources of labour supply, carrying out recruitment, selection and placement into the organization. iii. Education/Training and Development: The personnel department is responsible for the training, education and the development of employees. It is the training needs have been determined, it is the responsibility of the department to design an appropriate programme by determining the method to be used, the course content, the duration and the institution or person to conduct the training. Training enables employees to adjust to new trends, improve their performance on the job and prepare them for promotion. iv. Wage and salary administration: Wage and salary Administration is one of the important functions of the personnel department. It is responsible for designing equitable and attractive wage and salary schemes for employees in an organization. It also determines how overtime payments. Bonuses and other fringe benefits are to be paid. It is also responsible for surveying the labour market and making the necessary changes and adjustments to the wage and salary structures to reflect the wages and salaries policies of the government of the day. v. Health, Safety and Welfare of Employment:- Another important function of the Personnel department is to ensure that there are measures to take care of the health, safety and welfare of its employees. It ensures these by providing first-aid facilities, good ventilation, lighting, drainage and proper working conditions. It also provides protective gadgets for employees to reduce the occurrence of accidents and injuries. Canteen, sports, transport, pension schemes, group insurance schemes and other recreational programmmes are provided for the welfare of its employees. vi. Industrial Relations: The personnel department plays an important role in maintaining a cordial and harmonium working relationship between workers and management. The term industrial relations are used to describe the relationship that exists between employers, employees (trade unions) and the government. Performance appraisal: organizing the appraisal process to identify development needs of employees. Personnel administration: record-keeping and monitoring of legislative requirements related to equal opportunities and possibly pensions and tax. Communication: providing an internal information service, perhaps in the form of staff newspapers or magazines, handouts, booklets, videos. 2.3 EMPLOYMENT PROCESS The employment process which is also referred to as the recruitment process involves a number of activities which are undertaken to engage the right caliber of personnel for an organization. It is therefore concerned with the employment and maintenance of qualified and efficient labour force. Employment therefore involves recruitment, selection and placement. The recruitment and selection process involves recruitment, interrelated activities which include the following. 2.3.1 RECRUITMENT It is the process of acquiring applicants who are available and qualified to fill positions in the organization.1 Recruitment refers to the first step in staffing, which is finding people.2 Sources of recruitment refer to the various avenues from which the personnel manager may recruit or employ labour. Recruits are obtained from a variety of sources. There source are divided into two main categories, namely internal and external sources. Pieter Grobler (page 167) Sources of Recruitment Internal Source Sources of potential candidates are many and varied, but a good starting point is to consider any internal candidates who might be suitable for the post. The exercise whereby the required manpower is obtained within the organization is the internal source. This may take the form of promoting a qualified worker to a higher position as they occur. Advantages of Internal Source There is less risk of error in selection and placement It boosts the morale of employees and encourages them it work hard It is quicker, cheaper and less risky than an outside appointment The recruit fits in with the culture of the organization; he knows â€Å"how we do things here† The individual also knows the people, systems and the business and thus the induction period will be quicker Disadvantages of Internal Source No new ideas, creativity or challenge to the culture and systems It tends to ignore qualified candidates who are not within the system A post will still need filling-the persons old post. That is he will create another vacancy The person may not be the best, qualified or most able candidate External Source Depending on management policy and the type of job involved. Management has a number of options available for obtaining people from outside the organization. These include: Educational Institutions: Organization and companies sometimes recruit fresh graduates from schools, colleges, polytechnics and the universities. Private Employment Agencies: Employers who cannot go through the process of recruitment engage consulting firms to do the recruitment for them. Labour Department: this is a public agency found in almost all regional scapitals where employees in search of employment and employers searching for employees go to register. An arrangement is then made to link the employer with the prospective employee. Advertisements: This is the most common and popular source of external recruitment where companies announce their employment opportunities through the newspapers, magazines, journals, radio and television. Unsolicited Applicant: People who are seeking for jobs sometimes apply to organizations without being aware of vacancies in those organizations. If there are vacancies, the applicant may be asked to go through the screening process. Where vacancies are not immediately available, his name will be placed on the waiting list. Employment Referrals:- Companies sometime announce job vacancies to their staff and ask them to recommend friends, relatives and neighbours who might be in need of employment and possess the required qualification and skill. Advantages of External Source It leads to the employment of people with new knowledge and ideas It leads to the employment of qualified and suitable people to fill vacant posts It promotes good will Its scope of selection is widened Disadvantages of External Sources It is costly and time consuming It may lead to low morale especially where there are qualified people within the organization The risk of making wrong selection is very high 2.3.2 JOB ANALYSIS It is the determination of the essential characteristics of a job. It is therefore a process of determining the nature of the job and the skills, knowledge, experiences and abilities of the person who is supposed to perform the job. It therefore contains information such as task performed, machines and equipment to be used, materials, products or services involved, training skills, knowledge and personal traits required of the worker. Job analysis therefore describes both the worker and the job so that there are no questions about who is doing what within the firm. Franklin A. (page 156) When undertaken carefully, job analysis could be used to; It provides the information necessary for recruitment, selection and placement of employees. It can be used to get an idea of the acceptable level of performance for each job (performance appraisal) It is used to device and implement training and development programmes It provides an opportunity to uncover and identify hazardous conditions Jobs may be analyzed in order to ensure that employees are fairly compensated The components of job analysis include. A. Job Description It specifies the duties and requirements of the job. This is a broad statement describing the purpose, scope, duties and responsibilities of a particular job. It states the title and location of the hob, grade/salary level of the job, limits of authority, number of subordinates, physical working conditions, machines, tools and equipment used, product or service produced etc. it typically portrays job content. In short, it summarizes all the basic tasks that are required to be performed on a job. A job description is what the worker does. Franklin A. (page 167) Importance of Job Description Each employee gets to know what is expected of him. It helps to avoid overlapping. It helps determine the rate of pay which is fair for the job. It helps in appraising and training employees It makes it possible for new employees to be given orientation with regards to their duties and responsibilities. It provides information from which particular hob vacancies can be advertised It guides the personnel manager in the development of job specification SELECTION This is the process by which an organization chooses from a list/pool of applicants the person who best meets the job and organizational requirements. The main objective of the selection process is to sort out those judged qualified for the job. (a) Selection Procedure i. Application Forms Applicants who reply to job advertisements are usually asked to fill in a job application form, or to send a letter giving details about themselves and their previous job experience (Curriculum Vitae or (C.V). An application form is used to find out relevant information about the applicant. It tells the organization whether or not an applicant is worthy of an interview or a test of some kind. Information usually required of candidates include; Personal data, educational background, work experience, date of birth, interests and hobbies. An applicant who is deemed suitable on this evidence becomes a candidate for interview. ii. Application Screening (Short-listing) The screening stage involves the sorting out or elimination of those applicants judged unqualified for the job. The personnel manager receives the filled application forms, and then screens them to determine those who are qualified to be invited for interview. This becomes necessary since all types of applications are received when jobs are advertised. This stage is also referred to as short-listing. It is done by marching all the applications against the employers requirements. iii. Selection Tests Selection tests are used to supplement other techniques. The tests are usually handled by fully qualified industrial psychologists. It is a practical examination to determine whether an applicant is suitable for the job. The assumption behind the administration of the tests is that a candidate who scores well in the test will more likely succeed in the job. Types of test The types of tests commonly used include:- i. Intelligence Tests: Their aim is to measure the applicants general intellectual ability. That is they are designed to measure his thinking abilities. They may test the applicants memory, ability to think quickly and logically, and skill at solving problems. ii. Aptitude Tests: These are designed to predict an individuals potential for performing a job or learning new skills. They are widely used to obtain information about such skills as mechanical ability, clerical and numerical ability. It measures a persons ability to do something given a good training. iii. Psychological tests: Psychological tests may measure a variety of characteristics such as an applicants skill in dealing with other people, ambition and motivation or emotional stability. They usually consist of questionnaires asking respondents to state their interest in or preference for jobs, leisure activities etc. Proficiency Tests: Proficiency tests are the most closely related test to an assessors objectives, because they measure ability to do the work involved iv. Medical Tests: Medical tests are carried out to determine the physical fitness of the applicant and whether he has any hidden diseases. Candidates who might have contagious diseases will be rejected. INTERVIEW Interview is a conversation or verbal interaction between two or more people for a particular purpose. Interviewing is a crucial part of the selection process because it gives the organization an opportunity to assess the applicant directly, and it gives the applicant an opportunity to learn more about the organization and whether he or she wants the job Objectives of Interview It gives the employer an opportunity to obtain information about each applicant and to assess his suitability for the job. It enables the employer to cross-check the applicants original documents or educational certificates. It enables the employer to have a critical view of the physical appearance of the applicant It also gives him an opportunity to determine the applicants level of intelligence. It provides the applicant an opportunity to know more about the organization, the job and the employees of the organization. References (Background Investigations) References provide further confidential information about the prospective employee. Prospective candidates are normally asked to submit references who can be contacted when the need arises. Such references include: schools, colleges, universities, former employers (if any) and relatives. The use of reference compels employees to be honest in supplying information about themselves to an organization. References are brief statements about a candidate made by a third party usually the candidates superior. These statements are used to confirm information supplied by applicants on application forms. Placement This is the stage where the new employee is placed on the job. He is assigned to an officer and a superior if he is a clerical worker. It is the responsibility of the superior to give the new employee in-service training where necessary and to provide a schedule of duties. Induction This may be conducted by the personnel manager and it is the process of orientating the selected applicant into his or her new working environment. It takes the form of introducing new employees to existing staff, visits to the plants and other departments, informing him/her about his duties and responsibilities, as well as the policies and objective of the organization. Induction simply means the introduction of a new employee into his or her job or organization Job Changes The post recruitment functions of the personnel manager includes transfers, promotions, demotions and termination. i. Transfers:- This occurs when employees have been assigned to another branch, department or to another job involving similar responsibilities, skills and remuneration. The transfer could be from one department to another or one station to another. It may be used to correct an error made during the recruitment process. Reasons for transfers The close down of a branch or department may call for a transfer Self request by an employee because of his inability to relate well with co-workers of lack of interest in his job or for purposes of frequent medical check-ups due to sickness. Transfer may be used as a punishment device A person may also be transferred to take up a new appointment A fall in the level of production may also necessitate the re-allocation of employees. ii. Promotion Promotion may be defined as the transfer of an employee from one job to another which involves a greater responsibility and usually a higher reward (pay). In other words, it involves a change in status and usually means appointment to a higher grade with greater and more challenging responsibilities. It is an important aspect of management because it is through promotion that a worker obtains satisfaction and shows his desire to advance and develop. Promotion Policy Many large organizations have a policy of filling senior job positions from within the organization. Others also believe in recruitment from outside the organization. Every organization should however come out with a clear policy on promotion so that employees know in advance the criteria to be used in promotion. Normally promotion is based on the following: Seniority (length of service) Practical ability (skill) General attitude and loyalty Education and qualification Personality or character Advantages of Promotion Promotion improves morale and motivation of employees in the organization. Promotion helps reduce labour-turn over in an organization It is seen as a reward for dedicated service, hard work, loyalty and obedience to rules and regulations of the organization. Fair promotions create a feeling of content among employees and retain their interest in the company. It helps employees to put in extra effort to help attain organizational objectives It improves the earning power and status of the employees Problems of promotion more qualified employees may be ignored or overlooked an employee adjudged competent when promoted may perform below expectation qualified personnel when overlooked in time of promotion may feel dejected and unrecognized. This may affect his morale and for that matter his overall performance. A worker who has a special interest in his/her job e.g. cashier in a financial institution may refuse to accept promotion. iii. Demotion It is the reduction in rank of an employee or the transfer of an employee to jobs with lower ranks backed by a reduction in salary. It therefore refers to a decrease in status as well as remuneration. Reasons For Demotion: Failure on the part of employees to live up to expectation (poor performance) Serious crime against the organization example; pilfering, fraud, leaking, organizational secrets to the advantage of competitors etc. It can also be based on indiscipline or disloyal to rules of the organization Serious or unfavourable business conditions may necessitate lay-offs and termination; some employees may accept demotion as an alternative. Problems of Demotion it leads to reduction employee status and remuneration it also creates morale problems for affected employees. Some affected employees may resign, leading to labour turn over and its associated problems, iv. LABOUR TURN OVER Labour turn over refers to the rate at which employees are leaving the business organization at a particular time and their replacement. It therefore describes the movement of workers into and out of employment of an organization in a in a given period of time It is calculated by: L x 100 A Where: L = Those leaving during the year A = Average number employed during the year or Average number on the companys payroll within that period. A high (index) labour turnover means more people leave the employment because of low morale. It could also mean a high proportion of the employment of women or scholars who have returned to college to pursue academic careers, death, pension etc. Causes of Labour Turn Over There are various causes of labour turn-over. Among them include the following: Discontentment (dissatisfaction) among employees as a result of poor working conditions, Lack of promotional avenues Poor leadership style Very long hours of work with little time for rest Unfairness and improper administration of disciplinary measures Poor wages and salaries Lack of opportunities for self advancement Boredom, wrong job assignment or lack of job satisfaction Lack of opportunity to express opinions to management and to participate in decision making. Problems of Labour Turn Over It brings about extra-expenditure, that is hiring and training of new employees Production rate is decreased and this tend to affect the volume of ales and profit margins It leads to overtime payment for extra man-hours spent on the job The money spent on training developing employees who have left goes down the drain There could be low morale for the remaining employees due to loss of old work mates and friends It takes a lot of time for workers to properly settle or fit into the system Solution To the causes of labour turnover A study or research should be conducted to identify which factors have been the cause of dissatisfaction and that have been responsible for the labour turnover. The following suggested solutions could be applied by individual companies. i. Companies should provide attractive wages and salaries to ensure that employees are above to meet their basic necessities. ii. There should also be improvement in the working conditions of workers. Protective clothes, canteen, transport, housing and medical facilities should be provided to cater for the welfare of workers. iii. There should also be opportunities for growth and development for employees, e.g study leave, provision of library facilities, promotion etc. iv. Joint consultation must be instituted to enable representatives of workers and employers meet to identify common problems and find solutions to them. 2.4 Termination of Employment Every employer has the option to terminate the employment of his employees but only on the grounds that certain conditions are meet e.g. giving of appropriate notice and payment of entitlements. Employees also have an option to resign from their present job and look for another provided they also satisfy certain conditions e.g. appropriate notice and proper handing over. There are ways by which a contract of employment may be terminated and they include: redundancy, dismissals, retirement and resignation. 2.4.1 Redundancy This is a situation where employees are asked to leave their employment because of lack of work. that is, the organization does not need their service any longer. Therefore when there is reduction in production and the workers are greater than what the organization needs, some are asked to leave employment. 2.4.2 Dismissal Dismissal is an act of sending an employee away form his employment because be is not qualified, undisciplined or is dishonest in his work. It is the permanent withdrawal of an employee from the services of a company. 2.4.3 Retirement It is the act of retiring or having stopped working after attaining a certain age. The age may either be contained in the companys policy or decision taken by the individual himself. 2.4.4 Resignation Resignation usually comes from employees. Resignation is the indication by the employee that he has ceased to be in the employment of the employer. 2.4.5 Lay Off This is a temporary withdrawal of employees from work due to shortage of raw materials, low demand for the companies products or services, or financial problems. These employees may be called back when the need arises. When conditions improve and some of the aid-off workers are invited to come back to work, it is known as recall. 2.5 EDUCATION, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 2.5.1 Education This is usually intended to mean basic instructions in knowledge and skills designed to enable people make the most life in general. It is thus a process of training and instructing people in schools, colleges, Polytechnics, universities etc. which is designed to give knowledge and development of skills. At the end of the course, a certificate is given to those who pass their final examination. Education is therefore more personal and broadly based. 2.5.2 Development This suggests a broader view of knowledge and skills acquisition rather than training. It is less job-oriented and career-oriented. It sees employees as adaptable resources and thus concerned with preparing individuals with skills and experience to fill challenging higher level positions in the organization. 2.5.3 Training Training is job oriented rather than personal. Training involves a series of actions aimed at preparing an individual with skills to do a particular job. It may be defined as â€Å"the systematic development of the attitudes, knowledge and skill patterns required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job† Methods of Training The main methods of training include: i. Apprenticeship Training This is a method of training where the apprentice under studies his master for a number of years, learning all the basic skills involved in the profession. This type of training is given to young people who have either completed school or who have not been to school. This type of training is common and popular in professions like tailoring, dressmaking, carpentry, driving and masonry. The apprentice pays a certain amount to his master and he is not paid during the period of his/her training but given allowance as and when necessary by his/her master. ii. Supervisory Training This type of training is give to employees who have been appointed supervisors or foremen. Supervisory training involves the teaching of supervisors or foremen the skill of getting work done through others. It is therefore meant to improve on their leadership skills and qualities. It takes place in an institute in the form of seminars or workshops with discussions on leadership, morale, development, directing, and health and safety measures. iii. Executive Training Personnel in middle management and top management positions are covered under this type Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions 2.1 INTRODUCTION The effectiveness of any organization in general, is a direct function of the quality of the individuals who make up that organization. The knowledge, skills, abilities, and commitment of the members of the organization together constitute the most critical factor in the development and implementation of work plans and the delivery of products and services. Without the full commitment of its employees, an organization cannot accomplish its objectives. Consequently, the attraction, organization, development and motivation of employees which is the personnel function of management are a central responsibility at all levels of management that is from the chief executive to the first line supervisor. 2.2 WHAT IS PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT? There are many definitions of personnel management, but all basically say that it is: attracting and developing competent employees and creating the organizational conditions which result in their full utilization and encourages them to put forth their best efforts.1 In any organization, there has to be someone concerned with the welfare and performance of persons who are a part of the operation. When an individual or a team of individuals takes on this task of seeing to programs and setting policies that impact everyone associated with the company, they are engaged in the process of personnel management, sometimes referred to as human resources management, According to Franklin A., personnel management is based on careful handling of relationships among individuals at work and is the art of forecasting, acquiring, developing and maintaining competent workforce so that the organization derives maximum benefit in terms of performance and efficiency.2 Personnel Management is that part of management which is concerned with, people at work and their relationship within the organization. It can also be defined as that aspect of an organization, which is concerned with obtaining the best possible staff for the origination, looking after them so well that they will like to remain in the organization and give off their best in their jobs. It has to do with how best to use the skills and intelligence of people towards the achievement of organizational objectives.3 From the definitions quoted by various management experts in the past or present, the inference that we derive is that personnel management aims at attaining maximum efficiency and to yield maximum benefits to the organization. Two major points about personnel management are implied in this definition. First, effective personnel management must be future oriented. Support for organizational objectives now and for the foreseeable future must be provided through a steady supply of competent and capable employees. Second, effective personnel management is action oriented. The emphasis must be placed on solution of employment issues and problems to support organizational objectives and facilitate employee development and satisfaction To sum up, Personnel management aims at achieving these major steps: Analyzing the plan for future action and expansion. Estimating the quantitative and qualitative aspects of labour. Assessing the requirement of existing manpower or human resource. Formulating the plan for effective utilization of manpower, reducing under utilization or mis-utilization of manpower which is one of the most important resources. Finalizes the planning for recruitment, selection, promotion, transfer, training and development. Organizational effectivenes Basically Personnel management has certain goals and objectives to fulfill which includes; Creating a congenial and healthy environment for employees or workers to function effectively. To bring about organizational and human resource development through training, development programmes or even managerial succession planning. Selection and placement of right number of people and ensuring proper allocation of duties and responsibilities upon them. Creating better inter-personal relations, developing a sense of responsibility and responsiveness amongst workers and employees. Boosting the morale and sense of initiative amongst employees. Adopting best techniques or conceivable methods to bring best possible development of workers on work. 2.2.1 Functions of the Personnel Department A well-organized personnel department of an organization performs the following functions. Typically personnel work is concerned with: i. Manpower Planning: This is the first function of the personnel department. It has to do with the process by which a firm ensures that the required staff in terms of qualification and number is available at the right time. It involves determining personnel needs in relations to the objectives of the organization. It therefore deals with the qualification or education, skills and the appropriate number of personnel a firm should engage. It is therefore the process of assessing, predicting, or forecasting an organizations manpower needs in a relation to its plans. ii. Employment/Recruitment: After the manpower needs of the organization have been determined, the next stage is the make an attempt to employ the right caliber of personnel into the organization. This involves identifying sources of labour supply, carrying out recruitment, selection and placement into the organization. iii. Education/Training and Development: The personnel department is responsible for the training, education and the development of employees. It is the training needs have been determined, it is the responsibility of the department to design an appropriate programme by determining the method to be used, the course content, the duration and the institution or person to conduct the training. Training enables employees to adjust to new trends, improve their performance on the job and prepare them for promotion. iv. Wage and salary administration: Wage and salary Administration is one of the important functions of the personnel department. It is responsible for designing equitable and attractive wage and salary schemes for employees in an organization. It also determines how overtime payments. Bonuses and other fringe benefits are to be paid. It is also responsible for surveying the labour market and making the necessary changes and adjustments to the wage and salary structures to reflect the wages and salaries policies of the government of the day. v. Health, Safety and Welfare of Employment:- Another important function of the Personnel department is to ensure that there are measures to take care of the health, safety and welfare of its employees. It ensures these by providing first-aid facilities, good ventilation, lighting, drainage and proper working conditions. It also provides protective gadgets for employees to reduce the occurrence of accidents and injuries. Canteen, sports, transport, pension schemes, group insurance schemes and other recreational programmmes are provided for the welfare of its employees. vi. Industrial Relations: The personnel department plays an important role in maintaining a cordial and harmonium working relationship between workers and management. The term industrial relations are used to describe the relationship that exists between employers, employees (trade unions) and the government. Performance appraisal: organizing the appraisal process to identify development needs of employees. Personnel administration: record-keeping and monitoring of legislative requirements related to equal opportunities and possibly pensions and tax. Communication: providing an internal information service, perhaps in the form of staff newspapers or magazines, handouts, booklets, videos. 2.3 EMPLOYMENT PROCESS The employment process which is also referred to as the recruitment process involves a number of activities which are undertaken to engage the right caliber of personnel for an organization. It is therefore concerned with the employment and maintenance of qualified and efficient labour force. Employment therefore involves recruitment, selection and placement. The recruitment and selection process involves recruitment, interrelated activities which include the following. 2.3.1 RECRUITMENT It is the process of acquiring applicants who are available and qualified to fill positions in the organization.1 Recruitment refers to the first step in staffing, which is finding people.2 Sources of recruitment refer to the various avenues from which the personnel manager may recruit or employ labour. Recruits are obtained from a variety of sources. There source are divided into two main categories, namely internal and external sources. Pieter Grobler (page 167) Sources of Recruitment Internal Source Sources of potential candidates are many and varied, but a good starting point is to consider any internal candidates who might be suitable for the post. The exercise whereby the required manpower is obtained within the organization is the internal source. This may take the form of promoting a qualified worker to a higher position as they occur. Advantages of Internal Source There is less risk of error in selection and placement It boosts the morale of employees and encourages them it work hard It is quicker, cheaper and less risky than an outside appointment The recruit fits in with the culture of the organization; he knows â€Å"how we do things here† The individual also knows the people, systems and the business and thus the induction period will be quicker Disadvantages of Internal Source No new ideas, creativity or challenge to the culture and systems It tends to ignore qualified candidates who are not within the system A post will still need filling-the persons old post. That is he will create another vacancy The person may not be the best, qualified or most able candidate External Source Depending on management policy and the type of job involved. Management has a number of options available for obtaining people from outside the organization. These include: Educational Institutions: Organization and companies sometimes recruit fresh graduates from schools, colleges, polytechnics and the universities. Private Employment Agencies: Employers who cannot go through the process of recruitment engage consulting firms to do the recruitment for them. Labour Department: this is a public agency found in almost all regional scapitals where employees in search of employment and employers searching for employees go to register. An arrangement is then made to link the employer with the prospective employee. Advertisements: This is the most common and popular source of external recruitment where companies announce their employment opportunities through the newspapers, magazines, journals, radio and television. Unsolicited Applicant: People who are seeking for jobs sometimes apply to organizations without being aware of vacancies in those organizations. If there are vacancies, the applicant may be asked to go through the screening process. Where vacancies are not immediately available, his name will be placed on the waiting list. Employment Referrals:- Companies sometime announce job vacancies to their staff and ask them to recommend friends, relatives and neighbours who might be in need of employment and possess the required qualification and skill. Advantages of External Source It leads to the employment of people with new knowledge and ideas It leads to the employment of qualified and suitable people to fill vacant posts It promotes good will Its scope of selection is widened Disadvantages of External Sources It is costly and time consuming It may lead to low morale especially where there are qualified people within the organization The risk of making wrong selection is very high 2.3.2 JOB ANALYSIS It is the determination of the essential characteristics of a job. It is therefore a process of determining the nature of the job and the skills, knowledge, experiences and abilities of the person who is supposed to perform the job. It therefore contains information such as task performed, machines and equipment to be used, materials, products or services involved, training skills, knowledge and personal traits required of the worker. Job analysis therefore describes both the worker and the job so that there are no questions about who is doing what within the firm. Franklin A. (page 156) When undertaken carefully, job analysis could be used to; It provides the information necessary for recruitment, selection and placement of employees. It can be used to get an idea of the acceptable level of performance for each job (performance appraisal) It is used to device and implement training and development programmes It provides an opportunity to uncover and identify hazardous conditions Jobs may be analyzed in order to ensure that employees are fairly compensated The components of job analysis include. A. Job Description It specifies the duties and requirements of the job. This is a broad statement describing the purpose, scope, duties and responsibilities of a particular job. It states the title and location of the hob, grade/salary level of the job, limits of authority, number of subordinates, physical working conditions, machines, tools and equipment used, product or service produced etc. it typically portrays job content. In short, it summarizes all the basic tasks that are required to be performed on a job. A job description is what the worker does. Franklin A. (page 167) Importance of Job Description Each employee gets to know what is expected of him. It helps to avoid overlapping. It helps determine the rate of pay which is fair for the job. It helps in appraising and training employees It makes it possible for new employees to be given orientation with regards to their duties and responsibilities. It provides information from which particular hob vacancies can be advertised It guides the personnel manager in the development of job specification SELECTION This is the process by which an organization chooses from a list/pool of applicants the person who best meets the job and organizational requirements. The main objective of the selection process is to sort out those judged qualified for the job. (a) Selection Procedure i. Application Forms Applicants who reply to job advertisements are usually asked to fill in a job application form, or to send a letter giving details about themselves and their previous job experience (Curriculum Vitae or (C.V). An application form is used to find out relevant information about the applicant. It tells the organization whether or not an applicant is worthy of an interview or a test of some kind. Information usually required of candidates include; Personal data, educational background, work experience, date of birth, interests and hobbies. An applicant who is deemed suitable on this evidence becomes a candidate for interview. ii. Application Screening (Short-listing) The screening stage involves the sorting out or elimination of those applicants judged unqualified for the job. The personnel manager receives the filled application forms, and then screens them to determine those who are qualified to be invited for interview. This becomes necessary since all types of applications are received when jobs are advertised. This stage is also referred to as short-listing. It is done by marching all the applications against the employers requirements. iii. Selection Tests Selection tests are used to supplement other techniques. The tests are usually handled by fully qualified industrial psychologists. It is a practical examination to determine whether an applicant is suitable for the job. The assumption behind the administration of the tests is that a candidate who scores well in the test will more likely succeed in the job. Types of test The types of tests commonly used include:- i. Intelligence Tests: Their aim is to measure the applicants general intellectual ability. That is they are designed to measure his thinking abilities. They may test the applicants memory, ability to think quickly and logically, and skill at solving problems. ii. Aptitude Tests: These are designed to predict an individuals potential for performing a job or learning new skills. They are widely used to obtain information about such skills as mechanical ability, clerical and numerical ability. It measures a persons ability to do something given a good training. iii. Psychological tests: Psychological tests may measure a variety of characteristics such as an applicants skill in dealing with other people, ambition and motivation or emotional stability. They usually consist of questionnaires asking respondents to state their interest in or preference for jobs, leisure activities etc. Proficiency Tests: Proficiency tests are the most closely related test to an assessors objectives, because they measure ability to do the work involved iv. Medical Tests: Medical tests are carried out to determine the physical fitness of the applicant and whether he has any hidden diseases. Candidates who might have contagious diseases will be rejected. INTERVIEW Interview is a conversation or verbal interaction between two or more people for a particular purpose. Interviewing is a crucial part of the selection process because it gives the organization an opportunity to assess the applicant directly, and it gives the applicant an opportunity to learn more about the organization and whether he or she wants the job Objectives of Interview It gives the employer an opportunity to obtain information about each applicant and to assess his suitability for the job. It enables the employer to cross-check the applicants original documents or educational certificates. It enables the employer to have a critical view of the physical appearance of the applicant It also gives him an opportunity to determine the applicants level of intelligence. It provides the applicant an opportunity to know more about the organization, the job and the employees of the organization. References (Background Investigations) References provide further confidential information about the prospective employee. Prospective candidates are normally asked to submit references who can be contacted when the need arises. Such references include: schools, colleges, universities, former employers (if any) and relatives. The use of reference compels employees to be honest in supplying information about themselves to an organization. References are brief statements about a candidate made by a third party usually the candidates superior. These statements are used to confirm information supplied by applicants on application forms. Placement This is the stage where the new employee is placed on the job. He is assigned to an officer and a superior if he is a clerical worker. It is the responsibility of the superior to give the new employee in-service training where necessary and to provide a schedule of duties. Induction This may be conducted by the personnel manager and it is the process of orientating the selected applicant into his or her new working environment. It takes the form of introducing new employees to existing staff, visits to the plants and other departments, informing him/her about his duties and responsibilities, as well as the policies and objective of the organization. Induction simply means the introduction of a new employee into his or her job or organization Job Changes The post recruitment functions of the personnel manager includes transfers, promotions, demotions and termination. i. Transfers:- This occurs when employees have been assigned to another branch, department or to another job involving similar responsibilities, skills and remuneration. The transfer could be from one department to another or one station to another. It may be used to correct an error made during the recruitment process. Reasons for transfers The close down of a branch or department may call for a transfer Self request by an employee because of his inability to relate well with co-workers of lack of interest in his job or for purposes of frequent medical check-ups due to sickness. Transfer may be used as a punishment device A person may also be transferred to take up a new appointment A fall in the level of production may also necessitate the re-allocation of employees. ii. Promotion Promotion may be defined as the transfer of an employee from one job to another which involves a greater responsibility and usually a higher reward (pay). In other words, it involves a change in status and usually means appointment to a higher grade with greater and more challenging responsibilities. It is an important aspect of management because it is through promotion that a worker obtains satisfaction and shows his desire to advance and develop. Promotion Policy Many large organizations have a policy of filling senior job positions from within the organization. Others also believe in recruitment from outside the organization. Every organization should however come out with a clear policy on promotion so that employees know in advance the criteria to be used in promotion. Normally promotion is based on the following: Seniority (length of service) Practical ability (skill) General attitude and loyalty Education and qualification Personality or character Advantages of Promotion Promotion improves morale and motivation of employees in the organization. Promotion helps reduce labour-turn over in an organization It is seen as a reward for dedicated service, hard work, loyalty and obedience to rules and regulations of the organization. Fair promotions create a feeling of content among employees and retain their interest in the company. It helps employees to put in extra effort to help attain organizational objectives It improves the earning power and status of the employees Problems of promotion more qualified employees may be ignored or overlooked an employee adjudged competent when promoted may perform below expectation qualified personnel when overlooked in time of promotion may feel dejected and unrecognized. This may affect his morale and for that matter his overall performance. A worker who has a special interest in his/her job e.g. cashier in a financial institution may refuse to accept promotion. iii. Demotion It is the reduction in rank of an employee or the transfer of an employee to jobs with lower ranks backed by a reduction in salary. It therefore refers to a decrease in status as well as remuneration. Reasons For Demotion: Failure on the part of employees to live up to expectation (poor performance) Serious crime against the organization example; pilfering, fraud, leaking, organizational secrets to the advantage of competitors etc. It can also be based on indiscipline or disloyal to rules of the organization Serious or unfavourable business conditions may necessitate lay-offs and termination; some employees may accept demotion as an alternative. Problems of Demotion it leads to reduction employee status and remuneration it also creates morale problems for affected employees. Some affected employees may resign, leading to labour turn over and its associated problems, iv. LABOUR TURN OVER Labour turn over refers to the rate at which employees are leaving the business organization at a particular time and their replacement. It therefore describes the movement of workers into and out of employment of an organization in a in a given period of time It is calculated by: L x 100 A Where: L = Those leaving during the year A = Average number employed during the year or Average number on the companys payroll within that period. A high (index) labour turnover means more people leave the employment because of low morale. It could also mean a high proportion of the employment of women or scholars who have returned to college to pursue academic careers, death, pension etc. Causes of Labour Turn Over There are various causes of labour turn-over. Among them include the following: Discontentment (dissatisfaction) among employees as a result of poor working conditions, Lack of promotional avenues Poor leadership style Very long hours of work with little time for rest Unfairness and improper administration of disciplinary measures Poor wages and salaries Lack of opportunities for self advancement Boredom, wrong job assignment or lack of job satisfaction Lack of opportunity to express opinions to management and to participate in decision making. Problems of Labour Turn Over It brings about extra-expenditure, that is hiring and training of new employees Production rate is decreased and this tend to affect the volume of ales and profit margins It leads to overtime payment for extra man-hours spent on the job The money spent on training developing employees who have left goes down the drain There could be low morale for the remaining employees due to loss of old work mates and friends It takes a lot of time for workers to properly settle or fit into the system Solution To the causes of labour turnover A study or research should be conducted to identify which factors have been the cause of dissatisfaction and that have been responsible for the labour turnover. The following suggested solutions could be applied by individual companies. i. Companies should provide attractive wages and salaries to ensure that employees are above to meet their basic necessities. ii. There should also be improvement in the working conditions of workers. Protective clothes, canteen, transport, housing and medical facilities should be provided to cater for the welfare of workers. iii. There should also be opportunities for growth and development for employees, e.g study leave, provision of library facilities, promotion etc. iv. Joint consultation must be instituted to enable representatives of workers and employers meet to identify common problems and find solutions to them. 2.4 Termination of Employment Every employer has the option to terminate the employment of his employees but only on the grounds that certain conditions are meet e.g. giving of appropriate notice and payment of entitlements. Employees also have an option to resign from their present job and look for another provided they also satisfy certain conditions e.g. appropriate notice and proper handing over. There are ways by which a contract of employment may be terminated and they include: redundancy, dismissals, retirement and resignation. 2.4.1 Redundancy This is a situation where employees are asked to leave their employment because of lack of work. that is, the organization does not need their service any longer. Therefore when there is reduction in production and the workers are greater than what the organization needs, some are asked to leave employment. 2.4.2 Dismissal Dismissal is an act of sending an employee away form his employment because be is not qualified, undisciplined or is dishonest in his work. It is the permanent withdrawal of an employee from the services of a company. 2.4.3 Retirement It is the act of retiring or having stopped working after attaining a certain age. The age may either be contained in the companys policy or decision taken by the individual himself. 2.4.4 Resignation Resignation usually comes from employees. Resignation is the indication by the employee that he has ceased to be in the employment of the employer. 2.4.5 Lay Off This is a temporary withdrawal of employees from work due to shortage of raw materials, low demand for the companies products or services, or financial problems. These employees may be called back when the need arises. When conditions improve and some of the aid-off workers are invited to come back to work, it is known as recall. 2.5 EDUCATION, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 2.5.1 Education This is usually intended to mean basic instructions in knowledge and skills designed to enable people make the most life in general. It is thus a process of training and instructing people in schools, colleges, Polytechnics, universities etc. which is designed to give knowledge and development of skills. At the end of the course, a certificate is given to those who pass their final examination. Education is therefore more personal and broadly based. 2.5.2 Development This suggests a broader view of knowledge and skills acquisition rather than training. It is less job-oriented and career-oriented. It sees employees as adaptable resources and thus concerned with preparing individuals with skills and experience to fill challenging higher level positions in the organization. 2.5.3 Training Training is job oriented rather than personal. Training involves a series of actions aimed at preparing an individual with skills to do a particular job. It may be defined as â€Å"the systematic development of the attitudes, knowledge and skill patterns required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job† Methods of Training The main methods of training include: i. Apprenticeship Training This is a method of training where the apprentice under studies his master for a number of years, learning all the basic skills involved in the profession. This type of training is given to young people who have either completed school or who have not been to school. This type of training is common and popular in professions like tailoring, dressmaking, carpentry, driving and masonry. The apprentice pays a certain amount to his master and he is not paid during the period of his/her training but given allowance as and when necessary by his/her master. ii. Supervisory Training This type of training is give to employees who have been appointed supervisors or foremen. Supervisory training involves the teaching of supervisors or foremen the skill of getting work done through others. It is therefore meant to improve on their leadership skills and qualities. It takes place in an institute in the form of seminars or workshops with discussions on leadership, morale, development, directing, and health and safety measures. iii. Executive Training Personnel in middle management and top management positions are covered under this type

Evaluating Algebra 1 Textbook & Reading Strategies Essay -- Education

Introduction In Yorba Buena high school, English Language Learning (ELL) student face obstacles connecting with the textbooks and comprehending the academic content. Section 10.1 of the Algebra 1 textbook (Larson, Boswell, Kanold & Stiff, 2007) is analyzed for comprehensibility and strategies to support students to connect with the text at intellectual level (Vacca, Vacca & Mraz, 2011). The chapter ten of the textbook will be thought at a tenth grade class during the week of March 11, 2012. Most of the learners in this Algebra 1 class are classified as level three and level four ELL students (California department of Education, 1999) and most of the students speak fluent conversational English. A page from section 10.1 of the Algebra 1 textbook is included (Appendix A, Figure x), page consist of about 250 words and defines five new content specific low frequency vocabulary. Text book Analysis Section 10.1 of the Algebra 1 textbook analysis is performed in the context of a specific classroom, students, reading proficiency, and learning goals. In essence textbook is evaluated from reader’s perspective and the learning of complex and abstract mathematical models. Chapter 10 objective is to develop foundation to graph and solve quadratic equations (Larson, Boswell, Kanold & Stiff, 2007). Applicable California Common Core Content Standards for Mathematics are moderately vigor and requires students to: 1. Complete the square in a quadratic expression to reveal the maximum or minimum value of the function it defines. (Common Core Standard A-SSE-3b) 2. Create equations in two or more variables to represent relationships between quantities; graph equations on coordinate axes with labels and scales (limit to linear and quadratic). (Co... ...(Exhibit C, Figure 3) of Concept Definition (CD), (Vacca, Vacca & Mraz, 2011, p.256). Graphic organizers are effective tool in conjunction with sheltered instructional pedagogy to scaffold ELL students to access grade level content. â€Æ' Works Cited California department of Education. (1999). Retrieved on March 10, 2012 from http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/documents/englangdevstnd.pdf California department of Education, K-12 California’s Common Core Content Standards for Mathematics (2010). Retrieved March 10, 2012 from http://www.scoe.net/castandards/agenda/2010/math_ccs_recommendations.pdf Larson, R., Boswell, L., Kanold, T. D., & Stiff, L. (2006). Algebra 1. McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin. Vacca, Richard T., Vacca, Jo Anna L., and Mraz, Maryann (2011). Content Area Reading: Literacy and Learning Across the Curriculum(10th Edition). Boston: Pearson.

Sutra for Long Life Essay -- Sutra, Mahayana, Religion

After closer study of the Sutra for Long Life and the World Universe as a Sutra it seems evident that, although Mahayana Buddhism is based on the teachings of the traditional Pali Canon, it places a larger emphasizes on philosophical inquires; while still managing to create a more accessible Buddhism for all. In their own way both Sutras highlight the fact that Mahayana Buddhism is more lay people friendly than the traditional Pali Canon, while still maintaining an important role for monks and nuns. Perhaps the most obvious example of this is presented in the â€Å"Whole Universe Sutra†. According to the Sutra, all beings possess the knowledge and enlightenment of Buddhahood within themselves. This pure core is simply buried beneath or wrapped in the deluded minds of the imperfect being (107-World). In other words, every being is capable of reaching Buddhahood as the truth resides within each individual, however, it can only be reached when â€Å"they abandon their deluded, contrary views†. It is only then that the â€Å"unimpeded knowledge† will arise within them (107,108-World). The sutras also make clear the idea of the Bodhisattva, those who have reached awakening and refrain from entering Nirvana in order to help others along the path. For example, the TathÄ gata is described as a person with â€Å"penetrating wisdom, and was endowed with a perfectly pure divine eye† (109). The TathÄ gata has already found the knowledge and truth within him and is also able to see that the same wisdom is present within every being. He finds it strange that every being cannot see the truth within, and therefore, takes it upon himself to â€Å"teach these beings so that they may fully awaken within the Noble path† (109-world). This is known as the â€Å"tenth intuition o... ...tiness, the Mahayana tradition as a whole is more philosophical than the Pali canons. The Mahayana introduces the idea of celestial Bodhisattvas, who are able to do extraordinary things. In the Sutra for Long Life, Buddhas become a teacher of â€Å"gods and humans† while living in a realm in between nirvana and samsara: the Buddha-fields (424-425-long life). Mahayana Buddhism stretches the notion of traditionally accepted reality. It is for this reason that the â€Å"Whole Universe Sutra† presents the knowledge of Buddhahood as the core within a deluded being (109-world). In other instances it is compared to as a womb wrapped inside defilements that must be ripped open. The Pali Canons may be a fundamental part of Mahayana Buddhism, but Mahayana sutras go a step further in asking philosophical questions and re-interpreting teachings and ideas present within the tradition.

Jessica and Shylock Essay

1) What forms the foundation of the relationship between the two characters your group has been assigned? (Think about the ties they have with one another, how are they drawn to one another etc.) There is familial love between Jessica and Shylock but Jessica is unfilial. The quote ‘To be ashamed to be my father’s child’ (2.3.16) shows that Jessica detests her father to the extent of being ashamed to be related to him. However, Solanio heard Shylock shout in the streets ‘ My daughter’(2.8.15) after he found out that Jessica left him with a Christian. This shows that Shylock cared about his daughter and loved his daughter so much that he was so overwhelmed with grief when she left that he shouted out loud in the public regardless of his image and reputation in the town. Thus, there is a one-sided love from Shylock to Jessica, Jessica does not appreciate Shylock’s love by being ashamed of him as well as running away from him which also shows that she is unfilial towards her father. 2) Does Shylock love his daughter? Explore how he appears to transform from a mere grumbling man to a malicious Jew. Is it purely out of spite towards Antonio? Jessica’s selfishness caused Shylock to be a malicious Jew. Jessica disregards her father’s feelings towards her elopement. She only thought about escaping her controlling father and her ‘house is hell’ with Lorenzo, gaining the freedom that she wanted. This implies that Jessica is selfish, she ignored the possible outcomes and consequences of her actions and carried on with her selfish plan to elope with Lorenzo, a Christian, when she could think about alternative methods to change her father and his hate for Christians. Moreover, Jessica shows complete disregard for her father by saying ‘ I have a father, you a daughter lost’(2.5.16) as she did not spare a thought about the disappointment her father will feel and the loneliness he would have to face without his wife and daughter by his side. Therefore, Jessica’s selfishness caused Shylock to be a malicious Jew by escaping with a Christian and arousing Shylock’s anger and hate to wards the Christians resulting him to want to get revenge against the Christians for causing him to lose his only daughter. 3) How has this relationship changed/progressed/deteriorated throughout the play. Jessica and Shylock shared a rocky father daughter relationship. Before Jessica eloped with Lorenzo, Shylock showed Jessica care by being a controlling father who applied rigid rules from the Jewish religion in their family, this is shown by the way Shylock treats Jessica. From the quote ‘Do as I bid you. Shut doors after you’(2.5.51) it shows how controlling Shylock is to his daughter, Shylock not only wants to lock up his daughter to the world he also doesn’t want Jessica to experience Venetian society, and Jessica shows her resentment towards her father when she said ‘ I am daughter to his blood but not to his manners’ (2.3.17). Furthermore, after Jessica left, Shylock had began to hate her daughter for leaving him with a Christian and stealing his money, ‘Justice,find the girl’(2.8.21) and ‘I would my daughter were dead at my foot’(3.1.75) shows that he wants his daughter to be caught and to be reported to the police or b etter yet dead so that his riches that were stolen could be returned to him , but, regardless of what happened he still acknowledge Jessica as his daughter and cared for her marriage when he said ‘I have a daughter’(4.1.292) and ‘ any of the stock Barabbas had been her husband rather than a Christian’ this implies that he wanted his daughter to marry a man whom he thinks is good not someone like a Christian who looks down on Jews which shows that he cared for her. Therefore, the relationship between Shylock and Jessica was a rocky one, Shylock’s feelings towards Jessica changes throughout the play, when he was feeling lonely or thinking about his daughter he showed his concern for her but when he was thinking about his ducats and his wealth that was stolen by his daughter he shows disappointment as well as his resentment towards his daughter and Christians. 4) Timeline 2.3: Jessica passes the letter which she wrote to Launcelot asking him to pass it to Lorenzo. 2.5: Shylock tells Jessica that he would be going to supper with some of the Christians and ordered her to lock up the doors as he does not want her to go out. Shylock nearly found out Jessica’s plans to elope when Launcelot gave her the instructions from Lorenzo. 2.6: Jessica elopes with Lorenzo, stealing her father’s money and jewels. 3.1: Shylock hears about Jessica wasting his money and also about her selling his precious ring that his wife gave him before they were married. 4.1: Shylock was upset as he felt that his daughter was stolen from him by a Christian and that she could have married a better Jewish husband. 4.1: Shylock converted to Christianity and agreed to leave his wealth to his daughter and her husband.